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A Brief History of Rubber
Based on Wade Davis, One
River 1996
Rubber is one of the most important products to come
out of the rainforest. Though indigenous rainforest dwellers of South America have been using rubber for generations,
it was not until 1839 that rubber had its first practical application in the industrial world. In that year, Charles
Goodyear accidentally dropped rubber and sulfur on a hot stovetop, causing it to char like leather yet remain plastic
and elastic. Vulcanization, a refined version of this process, transformed the white sap from the bark of the Hevea
tree into an essential product for the industrial age.
With the invention of the automobile in the late 19th
century, the rubber boom began. As demand for rubber soared, small dumpy river towns like Manaus, Brazil, were transformed
overnight into bustling centers of commerce. Manaus, situated on the Amazon where it is met by the Rio Negro,
became the opulent heart of the rubber trade. Within a few short years Manaus had Brazil's first telephone system,
16 miles of streetcar tracks, and an electric grid for a city of a million, though it had a population of only
40,000. Vast fortunes were made by individuals, and "flaunting wealth became sport. Rubber barons lit cigars
with $100 bank notes and slaked the thirst of their horses with silver buckets of chilled French champagne. Their
wives, disdainful of the muddy waters of the Amazon, sent linens to Portugal to be laundered...They ate food imported
from Europe...[and] in the wake of opulent dinners, some costing as much as $100,000, men retired to any one of
a dozen elegant bordellos." The citizens of Manaus "were the highest per capita consumers of diamonds
in the world."
The opulence of the rubber barons could only be exceeded
by their brutality. Wild Hevea trees, like all primary rainforest trees, are widely dispersed, an adaptation that
protects species from the South American leaf blight which easily spreads through and decimates plantations. Thus,
to make a profit, the barons had to acquire control over huge tracts of land. Most did so by by hiring their own private
armies to defend their claims, acquire new land, and capture native laborers. Labor was always a problem, so barons
got creative. One baron created a stud farm, enslaving 600 Indian women whom he bred like cattle. Other barons
like Julio Cesar Arana simply used terror to acquire and hold on to Indian slaves. Indians captured usually submitted
because resistance only meant more suffering for the families. Young girls were sold as whores, while young men
were bound, blindfolded, and had their genitals blasted off. As the Indians died, production soared: in the 12
years that Arana operated on the Putumayo River in Colombia, the native population fell from over 30,000 to less
than 8,000 while he exported over 4,000 tons of rubber earning over $75 million. The only thing that stopped the
holocaust was the downfall of the Brazilian rubber market.
The Brazilian rubber market was crushed by the rapid
development of the more efficient rubber plantations of Southeast Asia. However, the prospects of developing plantations
did not begin on a high note. Rubber seeds, rich with oil and latex, could not survive the long Atlantic journey
from Brazil. Finally, in 1876, an English planter, Henry Wickham, collected 70,000 seeds and shipped them to England.
This shipment remains "a source of controversy. Brazilians, conveniently forgetting their entire agricultural
economy is based on five imported plants—African oil palm, coffee from Ethiopia, cacao from Colombia and Ecuador,
soybeans from China, and sugarcane from Southeast Asia—still speak of the "rubber theft" as a moment
of infamy. Wickham himself, in his memoirs, lent a note of mystery to the deed, no doubt intending to elevate his
own profile in the eyes of his peers. In fact, all evidence suggests that the exportation was a straightforward
affair conducted in the open and actively facilitated by the Brazilian authorities in Belèm." In either
case, 2,800 of the seeds germinated and were sent to Colombo, Ceylon (present day Sri Lanka). After several false
starts, including one by a planter in northern Borneo who felled his plantation after finding no rubber balls hanging
from the branches, the prospects were grim. One major obstacle was that the success of tea (Ceylon) and coffee (Malaya)
gave planters no reason to try an untested crop.
Finally in 1895, Henry Ridley, head of Singapore's
botanical garden, persuaded two coffee growers to plant two acres (.8 ha) of Hevea trees. Twelve years later more
than 300,000 ha of rubber grew in plantations in Ceylon and Malaya. New innovations increased efficiency, and production
doubled every two years. Rubber could be produced at only a fraction of the cost of collecting wild rubber in Brazil.
By 1910, Brazilian production had fallen 50 percent. In 1914, Brazil's market share was down to around 30 percent, in 1918, to 20 percent,
and in 1940 to 1.3 percent.
However the Second World War threatened to shift the
rubber wealth. With Japan occupying prime rubber-producing areas in Southeast Asia, the U.S. feared it would run
out of the vital material. Every tire, hose, seal, valve, and inch of wiring required rubber. The Rubber Development
Corporation, the chief overseer of rubber acquisition, sought out other sources including establishing a rubber
program that sent intrepid explorers into the Amazon seeking rubber specimens that would be used to produce high
yields, superior products, and the possibility of resistance against leaf blight. The ultimate goal of the program was
to establish rubber plantations close to home. In addition to searching the Amazon and establishing experimental
plantations in Latin America, the program came up with some novel plans to produce rubber, including planting dandelions—their milky sap a small, but useful source of rubber—in 41 states. Extensive work on synthetic rubber yielded a product that, in time, economists predicted, would replace
natural rubber. By 1964 synthetic rubber made up 75 percent of the market.
However, the situation changed drastically with the
OPEC oil embargo of 1973, which doubled the price of synthetic rubber and made oil consumers more conscious of their
gas mileage. The concern over gas mileage brought an unexpected threat to the synthetic market: the widespread
adoption of the radial tire. The radial tire replaced the simple bias tires (which had made up 90 percent of the market only
five years earlier) and within a few years virtually all cars were rolling on radials. Synthetic rubber did not have
the strength for radials; only natural rubber could provide the required sturdiness. By 1993 natural rubber had
recaptured 39 percent of the domestic market. Today nearly 50 percent of every auto tire and 100 percent of all aircraft tires are made
of natural rubber. Of this rubber, 85 percent is imported from Southeast Asia, meaning that the U.S. is highly susceptible
to disruptions caused by an embargo, or worse, the unintentional or intentional introduction of leaf blight into
plantations. None of the trees in plantations across Southeast Asia has resistance to blight so "a single
act of biological terrorism, the systematic introduction of fungal spores so small as to be readily concealed in
a shoe, could wipe out the plantations, shutting down production of natural rubber for at least a decade. It is
difficult to think of any other raw material that is as vital and vulnerable."
Continued: Saving rainforests
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"Rainforest" is used interchangeably with "rain forest" on this site. "Jungle" is generally not used.
Recent news
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Environmentalists have long voiced concern over the vanishing Amazon rainforest, but they haven't been particularly effective at slowing forest loss. In fact, despite the hundreds of millions of dollars in donor funds that have flowed into the region since 2000 and the establishment of more than 100 million hectares of protected areas since 2002, average annual deforestation rates have increased since the 1990s, peaking at 73,785 square kilometers (28,488 square miles) of forest loss between 2002 and 2004. With land prices fast appreciating, cattle ranching and industrial soy farms expanding, and billions of dollars' worth of new infrastructure projects in the works, development pressure on the Amazon is expected to accelerate. Given these trends, it is apparent that conservation efforts alone will not determine the fate of the Amazon or other rainforests. Some argue that market measures, which value forests for the ecosystem services they provide as well as reward developers for environmental performance, will be the key to saving the Amazon from large-scale destruction. In the end it may be the very markets currently driving deforestation that save forests.
Amazon rainforest damage surges 67% in 2008 (12/20/2008)
The area of rainforest in the process of being deforested — razed but not yet cleared — surged in the Brazilian Amazon during 2008, according to new figures released by Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (INPE). The announcement comes shortly after the Brazilian government reported a 4 percent increase in forest clearing for the year. Using an advanced satellite system that tracks changes in vegetation cover INPE found that 24,932 square kilometers of Amazon forest was damaged between August 2007 and July 2008, an increase of 10,017 square kilometers -- 67 percent -- over the prior year.
Cutting deforestation can fight climate change, reduce poverty and conflict (09/24/2008)
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Future threats to the Amazon rainforest (07/31/2008)
Between June 2000 and June 2008, more than 150,000 square kilometers of rainforest were cleared in the Brazilian Amazon. While deforestation rates have slowed since 2004, forest loss is expected to continue for the foreseeable future. This is a look at past, current and potential future drivers of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.
